cisa schools

Though there are various interpretations as to what distance learning is all about, simply put it means learning without the student and the teacher being physically present at the same place and at the same time, in fact each is actually at quite a distance from the other. Still, many people, when they think about what distance learning is, will visualize a certain kind of coursework that needs to be completed online. In fact, this is not far from the truth though there are other ways too that distance education is obtained.

A Computer, The Internet And A Browser

Nevertheless, when it concerns getting an online education through distance learning, it is first of all necessary for the student to have a computer with a high speed Internet connection and a good browser as well. In addition, there are certain online distance learning education program where the student may be required to handle image as well as audio files. The student should also be reasonably proficient with word processing and other specialized software as it pertains to the line of study.

However, each kind of online education distance learning course will have its own special requirements. One of the prime concerns that is sure to be uppermost in the minds of most would-be students with regard to distance learning and education would be the value of all the work. The good news is that an online distance learning education provides many benefits such as allowing students the freedom to juggle various daily routines with their study times so that it turns into an all-round win-win situation for everyone concerned.

Online educational distance learning certainly means that there is no need to relocate in order to pursue your studies and you also don’t need to worry about competing with other students, as would be the case when pursuing on-campus studies. Of course, you will need to fulfill certain entrance criteria and you will also need to consider the tuition expense (it is no less expensive than tradition tuition) and apply for the appropriate financial help.

In fact, online education distance learning is especially suitable for a certain class of people. A person that will benefit the most out of this form of education would be one who can take initiative and is highly disciplined because these two attributes go a long way in helping one to succeed in this kind of educational endeavor.

Also, students need to be prepared for a relative lack of give and take since the student does most work independently and it is left to them how best to assimilate the course material on their own. Certainly, if you are the kind of person that likes to sit in a classroom filled with other students and who also likes to socialize, and then online education distance learning may not be ideally suited for your bent of mind.

When making the decision to learn photography or improve your existing skills, there is just so much material bombarding us making it difficult to know where to start. Where do you start and how do you get started.

My journey started many years ago, before the digital revolution when life was more structured, great material was available and the choices were limited. Now you can do a search on the internet and come up with a hundred sources. The unfortunate thing is that most of the material doesn’t offer you a preview and you can’t browse through it like a printed book or course. So where does one start? It’s essential when starting out on a photographic journey to get the basics right. Learning the fundamentals properly will prepare you for a bright and very fulfilling future in photography. Let’s take a look at a few important steps.

1. Find a practical ebook or course

Photography is a practical hobby and although theory is a part of it, one enjoys it by going out and doing. The operative word is doing. Any course must get you doing something from the very first chapter or if possible from the first paragraph. In teaching and training I have found it most effective to offer on the job mentoring while we are taking photos. With the instant feedback digital gives, it is the perfect way of teaching someone. That, of course, is great when dealing one on one with live people. Through a book or ecourse it may be a little more difficult but the author must get you shooting images immediately. The method I use in my books is to start people out shooting images and then afterwards giving them the criteria with which to evaluate their own images and improve them. Shoot, improve, shoot improve is the perfect way to learn because it’s practical. I cannot emphasise this point enough. A quick tip for looking at ebooks and courses, make sure that the author offers a money back guarantee. If the ebook or course doesn’t offer real practical advice you can get your money back. If they are not transferring their skills to you then the ebook isn’t worth it.

2. Start doing assignments or projects

The course or ebook you have decided upon should have practical assignments and projects or you have made a bad choice. I love acquiring knowledge through reading and research but after all these years it has done nothing to improve my photography without its practical application. So, start working through the assignments or projects carefully and try to apply the skills or techniques you are learning. Don’t proceed to the next chapter until you have mastered the lesson or skill. If you’ve bought a book that doesn’t have assignments then you need to create you own based on the material you are learning. Write it down so that you are clear as to what you should be doing then go out and shoot. You must have an end in mind and achieve a practical goal when your assignment is complete.

3. Use a journal

This is a photo journal and not a writing journal. You want track your progress and watch your learning journey develop. It can be a regular journal where you paste in your photos and make notes of location, date, time, the settings you used to take the image and how you felt. Or, you can maintain it on your computer. The key here is to watch your progress and see where you are improving and where you need to give more attention. Besides this, it’s a fun activity and a showcase of your photography. The key here is that it should help you keep focused and maintain your photographic journey. You are able to leave photography for a few weeks then pick it up again, revise and begin where you left off. It gives you structure to your learning and allows you to remember where you were last at and can continue on a logical course.

4. Teach someone else

This is where my photo journey took off like a rocket. As soon as I started teaching others I cemented the principles in my own mind and my own photography improved a hundredfold. I got together a group of friends for the purpose of enjoying my photo outings on the weekends. Because I was the most experienced they asked questions and I gave the answers. The ones I didn’t know I refreshed from my books and courses and the rest is history. Once you explain something to someone else you have to think about it more logically which often results in a better understanding on your own part.

5. Practise, practise, practise

The famous South African golfer and winner of many major international tournaments said, “the harder I practise the luckier I get.” You don’t think the master National Geographic photographers shot those fantastic magazine photos by chance do you? They come as a result of years of practise, trial and error. Go out and find your favourite subjects and practise shooting them from different angles, perspectives and viewpoints. It’s logical that if you shoot a subject in three different ways you won’t get the same results as if you did it in a hundred different ways.

Photography is a journey of discovery and learning. And, as you discover new things about your environment, subject or location and include them in your images you will start to improve at a rapid rate. These are just some of the principles that if applied correctly will help you learn photography like never before.

NEW POLICY ON DISTANCE LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR

In pursurance to the nnouncement of 100 days agenda of HRD of ministry by Hon’ble Human Recourses  development Minister ,New Policy on Distance LearningIn Higher Education Sector was drafted

BACKGROUND

In  terms  of  Entry  66  of  List  1  of  the  Seventh  Schedule  to  the  Constitution  of  India,Parliament  is  competent  to  make  laws for  the  coordination and  determination  of  standards  ininstitutions  for  higher  education  for  research,  and  scientific  and  technical  institutions.Parliament has enacted laws  for  discharging this responsibility  through  : the University GrantsCommission  (UGC)  for  general  Higher Education, the  All  India Council  for  Technical  Education(AICTE)  for  Technical  Education  ; and  other  Statutory  bodies  for  other  disciplines.   As regards higher  education,  through  the  distance  mode,  Indira  Gandhi  National  Open  University (IGNOU) Act, 1985 was  enacted with the following two prime objectives, among others:

(a)to  provide  opportunities  for  higher  education  to  a  large  segment  of  population,especially  disadvantaged  groups  living  in  remote  and  rural  areas,  adults,  housewivesand working people; and

(b)to  encourage  Open  University  and  Distance  Education  Systems  in  the  educational

pattern of the country  and  to  coordinate and determine the standards in  such systems.

 

2.  The  history  of  distance  learning  or  education  through  distance  mode  in  India,  goes

way back when the universities  started offering  education through distance  mode  in the name

of  Correspondence  Courses  through  their  Directorate/School  of  Correspondence  Education.

In  those  days,  the  courses  in  humanities  and/or  in  commerce  were  offered  through

correspondence  and  taken  by  those,  who,   owing  to  various  reasons,  including  limited number  of  seats  in  regular  courses,  employability,  problems  of  access  to  the  institutions  of

higher  learning  etc.,  could  not  get  themselves  enrolled  in  the  conventional   `face-to-face’

mode `in-class’ programmes.

 

3.  In  the  recent  past,  the  demand  for  higher  education  has  increased  enormously

throughout  the  country  because  of  awareness  about  the  significance  of  higher  education,

whereas the system  of higher education  could not accommodate this ever  increasing demand.

 

4.  Under  the  circumstances,  a  number  of  institutions  including  deemed  universities,

private  universities,  public  (Government)  universities  and  even  other  institutions,  which  are

not  empowered  to  award  degrees,  have  started  cashing  on  the  situation  by  offering  distance

education  programmes  in  a  large  number  of  disciplines,  ranging  from  humanities  to

engineering  and  management  etc.,  and  at  different  levels  (certificate  to  under-graduate  and

post-graduate degrees).  There  is always a danger that some of  these  institutions  may  become

`degree  mills’  offering  sub- standard/poor  quality  education,  consequently  eroding  the

credibility  of  degrees  and  other  qualifications  awarded through  the  distance  mode.  This  calls

for  a  far  higher  degree  of  coordination  among  the  concerned  statutory  authorities,  primarily,

UGC,  AICTE and IGNOU and its authority – the   Distance Education Council (DEC).

 

5.  Government  of  India  had  clarified  its  position  in  respect  of  recognition  of  degrees,

earned  through  the  distance  mode,  for employment  under  it  vide  Gazette  Notification No.  44

dated 1.3.1995.

 

6.         Despite  the  risks  referred  to in  para  4  above,  the  significance  of  distance  education  in

providing  quality  education and  training  cannot  be  ignored.  Distance  Mode  of  education  has

an important role for :

(i)providing  opportunity  of  learning  to  those,  who  do  not  have  direct  access  to

face to face  teaching, working persons, house-wives  etc.

 

(ii)providing  opportunity  to  working  professionals  to  update  their  knowledge,

enabling them  to switchover to  new  disciplines and professions and   enhancing

their qualifications for career advancement.

 

(iii)exploiting the potential of  Information and Communication  Technology (ICT) in

the teaching and learning process; and

 

(iv)achieving the target of 15%  of  GER  by the   end of 11th  Plan and  20% by the end

of 12th five year Plan.

7.  In  order  to  discharge  the  Constitutional  responsibility  of  determination  and

maintenance  of  the  standards  in  Higher  Education,  by  ensuring  coordination  among  various

statutory  regulatory  authorities  as  also  to  ensure  the  promotion  of  open  and  distance

education  system  in  the  country  to  meet  the  aspirations  of  all  cross-sections  of  people  for

higher education,  the  following policy in  respect  of distance learning is laid  down:-

(a)  In  order  to  ensure  proper  coordination in  regulation  of  standards  of  higher education

in different disciplines through various  modes  [i.e. face  to face and  distance] as  also to  ensure

credibility  of  degrees/diploma  and  certificates  awarded  by  Indian  Universities  and  other

Education  Institutes,  an  apex  body,  namely,  National  Commission  for  Higher  Education  and

Research  shall  be  established  in  line  with  the  recommendations  of  Prof.  Yash  Pal

Committee/National  Knowledge  Commission.  A  Standing  Committee  on  Open  and  Distance

 

Education  of  the said Commission,  shall undertake the  job of coordination, determination  and

maintenance of  standards  of education through the distance mode.   Pending establishment of

this  body:

 

(i)  Only  those programmes,  which  do  not  involve  extensive  practical  course  work,

shall  be permissible  through the distance mode.

(ii) Universities  /  institutions  shall  frame  ordinances  /  regulations  /  rules,  as  the

case  may  be,   spelling  out  the  outline  of  the  programmes  to  be  offered

through  the  distance  mode  indicating  the  number  of  required  credits,  list  of

courses  with  assigned  credits,  reading  references  in  addition  to  self  learning

material,   hours  of  study,  contact  classes  at  study  centres,  assignments,

examination  and  evaluation process, grading etc.

(iii) DEC  of  IGNOU shall  only  assess  the  competence  of  university/institute  in

respect  of  conducting  distance  education  programmes by  a  team  of  experts,

whose report shall be placed before the Council of DEC for consideration.

(iv) The  approval  shall  be  given  only  after  consideration  by  Council  of  DEC  and not

by  Chairperson,  DEC.  For  the  purpose,  minimum  number  of  mandatory

meetings of  DEC may be prescribed.

(v) AICTE  would  be  directed  under  section  20  (1)  of  AICTE  Act  1987  to  ensure

accreditation  of  the  programmes  in  Computer  Sciences,  Information

Technology  and  Management  purposed   to  be  offered  by  an

institute/university  through  the  distance  mode,  by  National  Board  of

Accreditation (NBA).

(vi) UGC  and  AICTE would  be  directed  under  section 20  (1)  of  their  respective Acts

to  frame  detailed  regulations  prescribing  standards  for  various

programmes/courses,  offered  through  the  distance mode under  their  mandate,

(vii) No  university/institute,  except  the  universities  established  by  or  under  an  Act

of  Parliament/State  Legislature  before  1985,  shall  offer  any  programme

through  the  distance  mode,  henceforth,  without  approval  from  DEC  and

accreditation  by  NBA.  However,  the  universities/institutions  already  offering

programmes  in  Humanities,  Commerce/Business/Social  Sciences/Computer

Sciences  and  Information  Technology  and  Management,  may  be  allowed  to

continue,  subject  to  the  condition  to  obtain  fresh  approval  from  DEC  and

accreditation  from  NBA  within  one  year,  failing  which  they  shall  have  to

discontinue  the  programme  and  the  entire  onus  with  respect  to  the  academic

career and  financial  losses of the  students  enrolled  with them, shall  be  on  such

institutions/universities.

(viii) In  light  of  observation  of  Apex  Court,  ex-post-facto  approval  granted  by  any

authority  for  distance  education  shall  not  be  honoured  and  granted

henceforth.  However,  the  universities  established  by  or  under  an  Act  of

education  programmes  in  the  streams  of  Humanities/Commerce/Social

Sciences before the year 1991 shall be excluded from this policy.

(ix) The  students  who  have  been  awarded  degrees  through  distance  mode  by  the

universities  without  taking  prior  approval  of  DEC  and  other  statutory  bodies,

shall  be  given  one  chance,  provided  they  fulfil  the  requirement  of  minimum

standards  as  prescribed  by  the  UGC,  AICTE  or  any  other  relevant  Statutory

Authority  through  Regulation,  to  appear  in  examinations  in  such  papers  as

decided  by  the  university  designated  to  conduct  the  examination.  If  these

students  qualify  in  this  examination,  the  university  concerned  shall  issue  a

certificate.  The  degree  along  with  the  said  qualifying  certificate  may  be

recognised  for  the  purpose  of  employment/promotion  under  Central Government.

(x) A  clarification  shall  be  issued  with  reference  to  Gazette  Notification  No.  44

dated  1.3.1995  that  it  shall  not  be  applicable  on  to  the  degrees/diplomas

awarded  by  the  universities  established  by  or  under  an  Act  of  Parliament  or

State  Legislature  before  1985,  in  the  streams  of  Humanities/Commerce  and

Social Sciences.

(xi) The  policy  initiatives  spelt  out  in  succeeding  paragraphs  shall  be  equally

applicable  to  institutions  offering  distance  education/intending  to  offer

distance education.

(b)  All  universities  and  institutions  offering  programmes  through  the  distance mode shall

need  to have prior recognition/approval  for  offering such  programmes  and accreditation from

designated  competent  authority, mandatorily  in  respect  of  the  programmes  offered  by  them.

The  violators  of  this  shall  be  liable  for  appropriate  penalty  as  prescribed  by  law.  The

universities/institutions  offering  education  through  distance  mode  and  found  involved  in

cheating  of  students/people  by  giving  wrong/false  information  or  wilfully  suppressing  the

information shall also be dealt  with strictly  under the penal provisions  of  law.

(c)  The  universities  /  institutes  shall  have  their  own  study  centres  for  face  to  face

counselling  and  removal  of  difficulties  as  also  to  seek  other  academic  and  administrative

assistance.  Franchising  of  distance education  by  any  university,  institutions  whether  public  or

private shall not  be  allowed.

(d )  The  universities /institutions shall  only  offer  such programmes  through  distance  mode

which  are  on  offer  on  their  campuses  through  conventional  mode.   In  case  of  open

universities,  they  shall  necessarily  have  the  required  departments  and  faculties  prior  to

offering relevant  programmes through distance mode.

(e)  It  would  be mandatory for  all universities and  education  institutions offering  distance

education  to  use  Information  and  Communication  Technology  (ICT)  in  delivery  of  their

programmes,  management  of  the  student  and  university  affairs  through  a  web  portal  or  any

other  such  platform.  The  said  platform  shall  invariably,  display  in  public  domain,  the

information  about  the  statutory  and  other  approvals  along  with  other  necessary  information

about  the  programmes  on  offer  through  distance  mode,  their  accreditation  and  students

enrolled,  year- wise,  etc.  This  may  be  linked  to  a  national  database,  as  and  when  created,  to

facilitate  the stakeholders  to take a view  on  the recognition  of  the degrees for the  purpose  of

academic pursuit or  employment  with/under  them.

(f)    All  universities/education institutions shall  make  optimal use of e-learning  contents  for

delivery/offering  their  programmes  through  distance  mode.  They  shall  also  be

encouraged/required  to  adopt  e-surveillance  technology  for  conduct  of  clean,  fair  and

transparent examinations.

(g)  The focus of distance education  shall  be  to provide opportunity  of education to people

at  educationally  disadvantaged  situations  such as  living  in  remote  and  rural  areas, adults with

no or  limited  access  to  education of their choice etc.

(h)  In  order  to  promote  flexible and need based learning,  choice-based credit system  shall

be  promoted  and  all  ODE  institutions  shall  be  encouraged  to  adopt  this  system  and  evolve  a mechanism  for  acceptance  and  transfer  of  credits  of  the  courses  successfully  completed  by

students  in  face-to-face  or  distance  mode.  For  the  purpose,  establishment  of  a  credit  bank

may  be  considered.  Similarly,  conventional  universities,  offering  face  to  face  mode

programmes  shall  be  encouraged  to  accept  the  credits  earned  by  the  students  through

distance mode.  A switch over from annual to semester system shall be essential.

 

(i)  Convergence  of  the  face-to-face  mode  teaching  departments  of  conventional

universities  with  their  distance  education directorates/correspondence  course wings  as  also

with  open  universities/institutions  offering  distance  education,  shall  be  impressed  upon  to

bridge the gap  in distance and conventional face-to-face mode of education.

 

(j)  Reputed  Foreign  education  providers  well  established,  recognized  and  accredited  by

competent  authority in their  country and  willing  to  offer  their education programmes  in  India

shall be allowed, subject to the fulfilment of the legal requirement of the country.

 

(k)  A  National  Information  and  Communication  Technology  infrastructure  for  networking

of ODE institutions shall  be  created under National  Mission on Education  through  Information

and Communication Technology.

 

(l)  Efforts  would  be  made  to  create  favourable  environment  for  research  in  Open  and Distance Education (ODE) system by setting up  infrastructure like e- libraries, digital  data-base,

online journals, holding regular workshops, seminars etc.

 

(m)  Training  and  orientation  programmes  for  educators  and  administrators  in  ODE  system

with  focus on  use of ICT and self-learning practice, shall be encouraged.

(n)  ODE  institutions  shall  be  encouraged  to  take  care  the  educational  needs  of  learners

with  disabilities and senior citizens.

(o)  An  official  notification  clarifying  the  issue  of  recognition  of  academic  qualification,

earned through distance mode,  for  the  purpose of employment, shall be issued.

(p)   A  mechanism  shall be  set  up  for  evaluation  of  degrees  of  foreign  universities  for  the

purpose  of  academic  pursuit  as  well  as  for  employment  under  the  Central  Government.  This

may include  the  assessment  of  the  credentials  of  the  university  concerned  as  also  to  test  the

competence of the degree holder,  if  needed.

So, you’re not sure if you should buy an educational board game. You probably think your children won’t like it, right? Well, I wasn’t sure either. But I bought one anyway. Guess what….they haven’t put it away yet!

There are many good reasons to invest in board games. And those rumors you have heard really are not true. They are not leftovers from the dinosaur age. Most of these games can hold a child’s attention very well in spite of the fact that they often are not what we’d consider “high tech”.

Reason Number One: It gives them something to do besides TV and computer games.

OK, I know what you’re thinking. We parents all think the same things, you know. How do I unglue them from the TV, and/or computer games? Most of us allow our kids to indulge themselves with these electronic devices, but it leaves us with the uneasy feeling that there’s just something unnatural or unwholesome about the messages their young minds are receiving.

How often do you tell your children, “get off of the computer”, or “turn off the TV”? I can hear the whining already. Don’t leave them with a vacuum. Give them something else to do that will hold their attention. Educational board games are a great alternative. They are non-violent and they can teach your child many important skills.

Reason Number Two: You could use these games to develop family connections.

Many games offer opportunities to discuss important issues. Wouldn’t it be great to know what is going on in their heads? Just the fact that parents and children are doing something together may result in better understanding of one another. Of course, this does require an investment of your time. Yep, that thing we have so little of. I had to go and mention that, didn’t I?

Wait a minute. Don’t we all have twenty-four hours in a day? Maybe it has something to do with what is important. Our children are important, aren’t they? Make them feel like they are.

Reason Number Three: These games are a break from the boring routine of textbook learning.

If your children are bored with the same old textbooks and home work maybe it is time to try something different. There are many ways to get information into their heads. Why make them hate learning when they can enjoy it? Educational board games teach the lessons without all of the drudgery.

Reason Number Four: They just might learn something.

That is why the guy, or gal, who made the game did it. He or she was hoping somebody, like your children, would learn something. And they probably will. No,scratch that. They WILL learn something. That is, if they play the game.

Some games teach math, some teach reading or phonics skills, some teach history, while still others teach moral lessons. Yes, you may have to spend a little time showing them how to play. But then they get it, and you can do something else while they learn valuable skills, er, I mean play the game. We wouldn’t want them to think there was an ulterior motive here.

And that brings me to Reason Number Five: To have fun.

Yeah, you know, fun. Wasn’t that what games were originally designed for? Educational Board Games are certainly no exception. Not only is it a break from the repetitive routine that can sidetrack the learning process, it’s just plain fun. Your formula for learning and fun therefore is simple: Buy the game, open it up, and show them how to do it. Then step back and watch those short attention spans disappear. Now you’re learning.

If you decide to attend a distance learning psychology course, you’ll learn all there is to know about emotions, human behaviour, thinking and motivations. That’s the whole purpose of this program to establish a connection between the scientific values and principles and the animal and human behaviour.

Everything is focused on scientific analysis of sensation, perception, psychological investigation, biology of behaviour and research methods. You will understand everything about life span development, stress, cognition, memory, abnormal behaviour, learning and personality development.

Enrolling for an undergraduate course in psychology requires a high school diploma or equivalent. If you don’t have them you will have to complete a few courses by authorized and accredited universities and colleges.

There are several distance learning psychology masters programs that will teach their students about Business Technology, Education and Human Services. This will help the student to determine his area of interest.

Behavioural studies and distance learning psychology courses walk hand in hand. That means that the students will learn about the fundamentals of theoretical and applied knowledge of psychology. The entire educational process is very personalized and that’s mainly because the personal experience of each student is mixed with the formal academic learning. The student can choose to specialize in clinic and counselling psychology or to understand the basics of psychology.

The program comprises a wide range of subjects such as: developmental psychology, learning and motivation, cognition and perception, neuroscience and psychophysiology, personality psychology or research methods and statistics, gender and sexuality, etc.

The way to attend the courses is all up to you. You can do it by correspondence, by mixing distance learning and online learning or via Internet.

You can enrol for a bachelor degree in psychology at: Easter Oregon University, Cerro Coso Community College, University of North Carolina, DuPage University, University of Nebraska, Northampton Community College, Genesee Community College and many other Universities worldwide.

For Masters in Psychology degree you can go to University of Nebraska, Suny Empire State College, University of North Carolina and University of Wisconsin.

When it comes to doctoral degrees in psychology you can choose between the Ryokan College, Capella University, Union Institute, Northcentral University and Fielding Graduate University.

The Psychology courses have been and will always be very important for the human society and no one can say otherwise. Before choosing any courses you should do some research and find the right one that suits you best.

Distance Learning: Promises, Problems, and Possibilities

 

Introduction

Distance learning and its relationship to emerging computer technologies have together offered many promises to the field of education.  In practice however, the combination often falls short of what it attempts to accomplish.  Some of the shortcomings are due to problems with the technology; others have more to do with administration, instructional methods, or students.  Despite the problems, many users like technologies such as compressed video and see continued growth in the area. This paper will examine some of the current research and thought on the promises, problems, and the future possibilities in modern distance learning, particularly types that are delivered via electronic means.

History of Distance Learning

Before any discussion of distance learning, we need to look at the way the term has been defined in the past and how it is currently defined in the literature.  The term can be used to describe any of a number of instructional situations.  Although it is thought of as a new term, distance learning has been around for well over 100 years.  One of the earlier forms of distance learning was done through correspondence courses started in Europe.  This stayed the primary means of distance learning until the middle of this century when instructional radio and television became more popular (Imel, 1996).  As technology has changed, so has the definition of distance learning.  Videotaped lectures have been a standard in university and professional courses for the last two decades (Moore & Lockee, 1998).  Audiotapes and lessons sent through the mail have been used in correspondence courses to teach subjects such as foreign language for quite some time (Teaster & Blieszner, 1999).  Today, the Internet and compressed video have taken distance learning in new directions, allowing distance learning to occur in real time. Live video instruction is the most popular and fastest growing delivery mode in the United States (Ostendorf, 1997).

Definitions of Distance Learning

With the history of distance learning encompassing so many different learning environments, we need to find a definition that fits in all situations.  There have been many definitions put forward in modern literature.  Greenberg (1998) defines contemporary distance learning as “a planned teaching/learning experience that uses a wide spectrum of technologies to reach learners at a distance and is designed to encourage learner interaction and certification of learning” (pg. 36).  Teaster and Blieszner (1999) say “the term distance learning has been applied to many instructional methods: however, its primary distinction is that the teacher and the learner are separate in space and possibly time” (pg. 741).  Desmond Keegan (1995) gives the most thorough definition.  He says that distance education and training result from the technological separation of teacher and learner which frees the student from the necessity of traveling to “a fixed place, at a fixed time, to meet a fixed person, in order to be trained” (pg. 7).  From these definitions we can see that the student and teacher are separated by space, but not necessarily by time. This would include compressed video, which is delivered in real time. As stated earlier, this type of live video instruction is the fastest growing means of distance learning today.  Because of this, much of the discussion here will be dedicated to the promises and problems of this technology.

The Promises of Distance Learning

Many of the promises of distance learning are financial in nature. Universities hope to save money by delivering education to students that are unable to attend classes because of time or distance.  The theory is that class size increases while the overhead remains the same.  In a 2001 article by Burton Bollag and Martha Ann Overland, they say that developing countries are turning to state run distance education programs to take the place of ever increasing enrollments and a lack of physical building space.  Places such as Beijing, Jakarta, and South American countries such as Brazil and Argentina have all begun to use distance-learning techniques to reach those that would by any other means be unreachable. Bollag and Overland say countries like China are moving from “elite to mass education,” and that “traditional universities cannot meet the demand” (pg. A29).  China uses a radio and television delivery system to serve 1.5 million students, two-thirds of which are in a degree program.

In Australia, Curtain University uses compressed video conferencing to reach remote students in Western Australia, and to enhance classes in Business Studies by connecting with students in Singapore.  Other examples can be found in the UK and Norway where several sites have been linked together (Keegan, 1995).  Of course there is also wide use in the United States, both in the public and private sectors.  It should be obvious by these examples and by the definition of distance learning, that it can meet the promise to deliver classes to a geographically broad and diverse population.  Not only that, but the need seems to be strong for such programs. According to the American Council on Education, the number of students in distance learning doubled from 1995 to 1998 totaling 1.6 million (Devarics, 2001).  Another market forecast says that by the year 2002 there will be 2.2 million students in distance education program, a full 15 per cent of all U.S. college students (Rochester, et.al., 1999, cited in Dibiase 2000).  Many Universities are feeling the pressure to control their costs, improve quality of instruction, focus on customer needs, and respond to the competitive pressures (Horgan, 1998, p.1). Distance learning technologies have the potential to assist in solving these problems. In 1994, Basom and Sherritt surveyed higher education administrators and state politicians to find out what they thought would be the major problems facing American higher education in the next millennium.  The answers they most often received were: “meeting increased demands at a time of decreased resources, increasing or maintaining access, using technology more efficiently, and sharing resources across state lines so that colleges won’t have to be all things to all people” (Pg. 4).  Distance learning seems to address all of these issues.  Administrators hope that distance learning methods will help make higher education more cost-effective (Dibiase, 2000).  This type of answer may be seen as a quick fix for many administrators.  If not approached seriously however, the distance programs can quickly become second rate.

The convenience of time and space is a big promise made by distance learning.  Students do not have to physically be with the instructor in space and, depending on the method used, they do not have to be together in time as well.  This is a great advantage for non-traditional students who cannot attend at regular times.  Satellite campuses such as the ones Arkansas State University have recently opened are drawing out a “hidden market” of adult students in small towns and recent high school graduates who don’t want to go away to a bigger city to get an education.  The satellite campuses could conceivably help the school’s enrollment to grow tenfold (Savoye, 2001).

Problems of Distance Learning

Despite the promises and obvious advantages to distance learning, there are problems that need to be resolved.  These problems include the quality of instruction, hidden costs, misuse of technology, and the attitudes of instructors, students, and administrators.  Each one of these has an effect on the overall quality of distance learning as a product.  In many ways, each of these issues relates to the others.  We will examine each of these issues separately.

Quality of Instruction

The first issue is the quality of instruction that is given through distance learning programs.  Much of the quality of instruction depends on the attitude of the administration and the instructor.  Data collected in a 1999 study by Elliot Inman and Michael Kerwin showed instructors had conflicting attitudes about teaching distance education.  They report that after teaching one course, the majority of instructors were willing to teach another, but that they rated the quality of the course as only equal or lower quality than other classes taught on campus.  Many times it seems that the administration believes the technology itself will improve the quality of the class.  Palloff and Pratt (2000) remind us that “technology does not teach students; effective teachers do”(pg. 4).  They make the point that the issue is not technology itself, but how it is used in the design and delivery of courses.  Too often instructors do not design their lessons to take advantage of the technology presented.  This affects the quality of the instruction. Research suggests that the effectiveness of distance learning is based on preparation, the instructor’s understanding of the needs of the students, and an understanding of the target population (Omoregie, 1997).  Sherritt (1996) found in her survey of higher education administrators that many of the decision makers view distance programs as second rate, a “necessary but deficient form of education” (pg.2).  She writes that this attitude also was found in academic departments that “have no strong mandates to adjust their curriculum and instruction to fit distance learning beyond cursory cooperation” (pg. 2).  There are no rewards for doing so and the effort takes away from research time.  Sherrit also cites a study by Caffarella et al. done in 1992, which found off campus instructors to be “a demoralized bunch, perceiving poor working conditions, isolation, personal and professional deprivation” (pg.3).  This attitude hardly seems conducive to an effective learning environment for the students.  If the administration and instructors are lacking in true commitment, it is bound to have a negative influence on the entire distance learning experience.

Cost Effectiveness

The second issue is the true cost and the cost effectiveness of distance learning programs.  Are they actually cost efficient?  A study by Phelps et al. (1991) found that “the potential cost-effectiveness of using online technologies in distance education is still uncertain” (pg. 303).  The study further showed that the concepts of costs and effectiveness are not as simple as they first appear.  Atkinson (1983, cited in Ng, 2000) notes, “it is possible for a program to be efficient but not cost effective if the outputs which are actually produced do not contribute to the program objectives: that is it may be efficient at doing the wrong things” (pg. 306). Ng also comments on the cost of human capital.  He states, “Human capital and the costs of conversion are expenses that can easily be underestimated” (pg. 306).  Ng notes that the cost of online courses is affected by how they are implemented: as an enhancement or as the primary teaching medium.  If it is implemented as a primary teaching medium, it is considerably more expensive.  The teaching purpose of the different approaches needs to be taken into account.  If this is not factored in by administration, there may be costs that are not apparent at first glance.  Caffarella et al. (1992) found in a study at the University of Northern Colorado that when electronic distance delivery costs were compared with those of instructor travel directly to the site, the least costly alternative was the live instruction with the instructor traveling to the remote site compressing the class into fewer weeks.  This alternative was one-third the cost of any other alternative.  Starting a compressed video distance-learning program is not cheap.  Southern Arkansas University-Magnolia decided to try compressed video as an alternative to other methods. The startup equipment for the unit was approximately ,000.  Establishment of a permanent T-1 telephone line was another ,200 per month (Weber, 1996).  These costs are startup only and do not reflect any of the human capital costs as discussed earlier.  Carr (2001) discusses a report by the California State University System that looked at cost savings in distance learning programs.  The report found that only in really large courses with many sections would cost savings be possible.  Courses in excess of 500 students would benefit from this setup, while it was still more cost effective to teach smaller groups in a traditional setting.  The startup costs, maintenance costs, and personnel costs should also be factored in to arrive at a true cost for a distance-learning program.  The minimum number of staff required for delivery of a compressed video class would be one instructor and two technicians, one at each site.  This means a minimum of three people is needed to deliver the same class as one instructor does in a traditional setting.  The costs associated with training technicians and instructors should not be overlooked.  For effective distance education to take place, the staff delivering the instruction should be well trained.

Misuse of Technology

Besides the cost of the technology, there is the possibility of not utilizing all its potential.  Some of these problems arise from a lack of training, some from the instructor’s attitudes about using the technology, and still others by hardware problems.  It seems to be self evident that instructors need to be trained to use distance learning technology, but too often they are not.  Once again, it appears that administration may feel that the technology itself will improve the course. Advancement in technology does not lead to effective distance education.  The best distance education practices depend on creative, well-informed instructors (Greenberg, 1998).  Bates (1995) suggests that newer technologies are not inherently better than old ones and many of the lessons learned from the application of older technologies will still apply to any newer technology. Again, the instructor should be trained to take advantage of both their experience and being able to adapt that experience to the new environment of distance learning.  The instructors must be trained “not only to use technology, but also to shift the way in which they organize and deliver material” (Palloff & Pratt, 2000, pg. 3).

The Role of the Technicians

One overlooked factor in the success or failure of distance learning programs is the role that the technicians play in distance learning.   Of course they play a large role in the technical delivery, but little is known about the non-technical activities of the technicians that could have an influence on the instructional process.  In a 1995 study, Olenski et al., found that technicians could indirectly influence the learning environment by “orientating participants to the technology, reducing the anxiety of the participants” (including the instructor), “and by advising the instructor on instructional techniques”(pg. 3).  This type of role, if viewed negatively by the instructor, can have a huge impact on the quality of the presentation, yet many times the instructor and the technicians do not meet until the initial class meeting.  Olenski also found that the technicians felt the instructors were given inadequate orientation to the equipment and really could not operate it until they had hands on experience.  The technicians also saw a difference in the instructors who could adapt their styles to the technology, and those who could not.  Those who adapted were, in the opinion of the technicians, superior in conducting the classes.  So we see not only does the instructor need to adapt to the educational environment, they must also adapt to another person in the room that can help or hinder the delivery of the lesson.  Much of the outcome depends on the attitude of the instructor.

Problems with Equipment

Equipment and hardware malfunctions can be a great detriment to the effectiveness of distance learning. When a problem occurs in a class everything comes to a standstill and the learning environment is interrupted.  If there are too many instances, the entire course can be affected.  For instance, if an overhead projector goes out during an instructor’s presentation, an alternate way of delivering that information can easily be found.  However, if a compressed video presentation has problems, the entire class must be stopped until the problem is resolved.  If the instructor goes ahead with the lesson, one site will miss out on that information.   Carter (2001) did a study of students taking courses by compressed video in the Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College program.  One of the questions he asked pertained to the equipment and technology operating correctly.  His results from three groups spread over the different sites showed that only 42% agreed with the statement that the equipment and technology operated correctly.  A program studied by Teaster and Bliesner (1999) found that unanticipated technical problems with the system shortened the class time and discussion that negatively affected the overall quality of the presentation.  In one presentation the connection was lost twice prior to the students arriving and ten times during the actual instructional session.  During this particular session there was never more than a four-minute period before the connection to one of the sites was lost.  This may be an extreme example, but according to the instructor involved in the presentation, the course experience was “better, but similar to past experiences” (pg. 743). At Southern Arkansas University-Magnolia, they discovered that using compressed video as a single medium of delivering distance education was not as effective as was first hoped.  Because of this they developed a different concept of an “electronic classroom” that did not rely on just one mode of delivery (Weber, 1996). Their experience was that compressed video had connection problems and did not work well broadcasting information delivered by lecture.  The failure of the hardware can be a very frustrating thing for all involved in distance learning.  For the instructor, it means they can be well prepared for the class only to have a bad connection or camera failure cause the entire lesson to go bad.  For the technician, the frustration and inability to keep the class running smoothly may affect the instructor’s view of their competency, causing friction.  For the student, an inability to get a flow to the class and feel like progress is being made can hinder the learning process.  Those students used to the traditional face-to-face instruction and who do not have a tolerance for ambiguity will have a difficult time.

Attitudes Towards Distance Learning

Despite problems with hardware that may or may not get worked out with new advances in technology, we must come back to instructors and their attitudes towards teaching in a distance-learning environment as a major potential roadblock to effective distance education.  As in any educational situation, the instructor can set the tone for learning in the educational environment. That instructor must be properly trained and motivated to be effective.  An instructor must have technological skills and confidence to use all of the various electronic devices in order to be truly effective in the electronic classroom.  Instructors must also change the manner in which information is delivered.  While lecture does not work well, multimedia presentations are successful (Weber 1996).  Of course this means more preparation time for the instructor and the motivation must be there.  (Walcott 1994, cited in Carter, 2000) found in a study of adult distance learning that “to effectively bridge the gaps between classroom and distance teaching, faculty need to look at the distance teaching from the students’ point of view” (pg. 249).  The faculty must also be aware of getting instructional materials, handouts, tests, and other class items to both sites simultaneously.  It is important for the instructors to develop a sense of community between the sites, achieve maximum participation, and get the participants to buy in to the process. The idea of learning as a collaborative process is very important when students are separated by distance. According to research by Palloff and Pratt (2000), “collaborative learning processes assists students to achieve deeper levels of knowledge generation through the creation of shared goals, shared exploration, and a shared process of meaning making” (pg. 6).  It is up to the instructor to be aware of this in the distance learning environment and to encourage collaborative learning and a sense of community among the students.

Another important consideration for the instructor is their view regarding the goal of distance education.  There are two main thoughts on this.  Schlosser and Anderson (1994, cited in Imel, 1998) put this thought forward in a review of distance education literature.  They submit that the goal of distance education in the United States is “to offer the distance student an experience as much like that of traditional, face-to-face instruction as possible” (pg. 3).  This would mean that distance learning pedagogy would not differ much from that used in an ordinary classroom.  Bates (1995) has a different idea.  He suggests that instead of using technology to replicate traditional methods, it should be used to improve instruction.  Holmberg (1989) also discusses these two schools of thought and concludes that distance education as a mode of education in its own right has very different consequences (than viewing it as a substitute for face-to-face instruction).  The instructor must decide which attitude they will adopt because it has a profound impact on their approach to instruction.

Instructors also have adaptations they need to make to the technology.  An instructor used to visual cues may find it difficult to adapt to a situation such as compressed video.  The students at the remote site are not always in clear view of the instructor.  West (1994) calls adapting to the lack of visual cues a major adaptation for the instructor.  Part of this can be alleviated by good communication with the technician, but as we have seen earlier, that communication is not always present.  McKnight (2000) contends that proximity and eye contact are important factors in education that are limited in the distance learning environment.  She says that we inherently recognize the connection these provide, but in the distance learning environment they are “both severely and sometimes permanently compromised” (pg. 2).  She asserts that professors are unable to observe the emotions of the students and cannot detect “moments of anxiety,” thereby limiting their ability to respond to student needs. This puts a burden on the instructor and causes the students to respond differently than they might in a traditional classroom setting.  As we saw earlier, creating a community is an important factor for the instructor to have an effective class.  The instructor must do all he can to overcome the limits of the technology and involve the students in an environment of interaction, which can work to create the feeling of a true class (Hiltz & Wellman, 1997).

Instructor Concerns

Instructors have other concerns about distance learning, primarily how it will change their role in education.  Clark (1993) found in a national survey of attitudes of higher education faculty that there was a moderately positive attitude about distance learning in general, but moderately negative attitudes about their own use of it.  Writing about geography educators, Gober (1998) worries that if they rely too much on distance-learning techniques, the discipline would “risk losing our collective soul in the rush to convenience, cost-effectiveness, and accountability” (pg. 130).  Instructors worry about putting their course materials online because once there, the knowledge and course design skill in that material is out of their possession.  This puts the administration in a position to hire less skilled, and cheaper, workers to deliver the technologically prepackaged course (Noble, 1998 cited in Dibiase, 2000).  Instructors are not always convinced that administration is behind distance learning.  The rewards are not always there for the good distance-learning instructor.  “Tenure and promotion usually does not recognize excellent off campus teaching which, in fact, takes valuable time from research agendas” (Sherritt, 1996, pg. 4).  This puts the instructors behind when trying to publish to get their department recognized.  The increased amount of time necessary to adequately prepare for distance learning takes away from the activities they will be evaluated on, such as grant writing and publishing.  Many of the instructors concerns are valid and should be addressed by administration as distance learning becomes more common, as is predicted to happen.

Student Concerns

Finally, there are the students and their concerns with distance learning classes.  Not all students are suited to this type of learning and not all subjects are best taught via this medium.  More mature students are the most likely to find success with distance learning.  The successful student needs to have a number of characteristics such as tolerance for ambiguity, a need for autonomy, and an ability to be flexible (Threkeld & Brzoska, 1994).  Hardy and Boaz (1997) found that “compared to most face-to-face learning environments, distance learning requires students to be more focused, better time managers, and to be able to work independently and with group members” (p.43). Many distance learners are different from traditional undergraduates in that they are already in professions.  They have well defined goals and are more motivated (Dibiase, 2000).  As we saw earlier, distance education students need to feel a part of a community.  Greenburg (1998) describes this as a virtual learning community.

Students in these communities often feel less pressure to perform individually, and more pressure to collaborate and be part of the team (Kantor, 1998 cited in Greenberg, 1998).  Being involved in a collaborative learning process is an important part of forming the foundation of a learning community.  When this is not encouraged, participation is generally low and dialog is absent (Palloff & Pratt, 2000).  Students also need the attention of the instructors.  This may be truer in a distance situation than in a traditional classroom.  In a situation where eye contact and proximity are limited, students cannot be disciplined nor affirmed by eye contact and body language (McKnight, 2000).  Students may also have a difficult time reading the reactions of the remote location class members.  This lack of interaction can cause problems when there is a dissenting opinion that cannot be picked up on with non-verbal cues, and is misperceived as a verbal attack. This type of miscommunication can cause the community problems as the class progresses.  It is fair to say that compressed video can magnify the strengths and weaknesses of the instructor.  Students are prone to pick up on a lack of organization and direction and respond with apathy and absenteeism (West, 1994).

 

Learning, Leadership and Problem solving: Life Through games. Part Two

Hasan Yahya, Ph.Ds

Part Two: From the Beatles, album “Abbey Road.” 1969. One part sings these words:   “Boy, you’re gonna carry that weight,  Carry that weight a long time” repeated twice. When you read these words, or hear the song, you decide that you will gonna carry that weight, all your life. But you will never  break down on new ideas. Life of individuals as well as life of nations are similar games dealing with biological, social, economic and political aspects of life. And you have to play your role in it. As one person, with various may be different roles you play in different times, places, and circumstances. As alone, or as a family member, or as a community member depends on others to live, or as a leader in some periods of your daily life, or sometimes of your day time or night time.  Any moment, you have to satisfy your needs, even while you are sleeping, eating, having sex, learning, or teaching, or traveling or leading or following other persons, or reacting to other person or persons actions. You will be involved somehow in life activities alone or else. You have no choice, because you are created for certain roles and you have to fulfill these roles according to the implied circumstances. Otherwise, you will live alone, bored all the time, which is close to be impossible after birth.
  

Group Management  Games: You have to be aware that managing group games may be determined by the size of the group: One person games, Two Persons, Three Persons, Four Persons games. Over six group members, Ten group members, 16 group size game, 20 group size game, The school sitting game, The community game, The state, The region, and The world game.

By age: childhood, adolescence, puberty, adulthood, middle age, and aging. Other divisions may be found: By sex: male or female or between.  By level of education: illiterate, low, medium(6-12 years) or high (12-16 years) , or very high, (16 + years). By Ethnic groups: Armenian, Turkish, Kurdish, Arabic, Jewish, American, European, Russian, Chinese, or else. By social status: low class, medium, or high class. Or fundamentalist, traditionalist, conservative, liberal, or anarchist. By race: Arab, Jewish, Indian, Chinese, Semite, non- Semite,  African, Mongol, or else. By color: Black, white, yellow, brown, or else. By wealth:  poor, not poor.  Not rich, and very rich. And finally: by behavioral traits: normal, abnormal, mentally able or mentally disabled. (450 words) (Go To Part Three)

Hasan Yahya, is an Arab American scholar, a professor of sociology, a columnist at wfol.tv, Malaysia, and TINA International News Agency, Chicago, USA. www.hasanyahya.com

Do you wish to get a hold of an accredited online degree program snow through a distance learning program? At hand are only some things which are significant that you should basically take into account. Primarily, there is more or less no discrepancy in the amount of work that has to be presented to obtain an authentic degree. Even though distance education is able to remove the call for taking time out of work to get a hold of the degree, still you will have need of allotting time within your schedule to take part in studies and assessments. On the other hand, the key difference amid going to a college or university or enrolling in distance learning is that you can make a choice among the instances you finish your work. This makes available the independence which you would enjoy so as to get engrossed and obtain excellent remarks exclusive of letting your career to be put at risk. It is possible to be typically tempted in pursuing an online degree in the course of an online learning program for the reason that you naturally are fascinated in a subject. Although this is an accredited online degree program snow to end a course, you ought to learn whether you gratify the barely minimum requirements for the degree prior to you going to school or not. Even though you might be able to find often a number of schools that promote their choices for an undergraduate course. For this reason, it is your conscientiousness to hit upon whether you could do with developing a pedestal of credits in advance from registering the institute of your picking or not. This might result for you to go into varied distance education curriculum with the intention of getting the explicit education you require. Furthermore, it is your verdict to discover if you encompass the resources to finish the program within the cut-off dates that the school settles on. Even though some colleges as well as universities permit applicants to obtain modest numbers of programs one at time, more than a few need customary students that are capable to seize a certain amount of credits for each term. Because of the dynamics of online learning programs, though, you probably can go to school full time in favor of your online program from a distance learning curriculum and carry on to upholding your permanent employment. Unluckily, this more often than not finished up with getting not enough time for other things until you have completed your degree. Several universities and colleges are presenting an online degree through the means of distance learning programs which also present financial maintenance packages for learners who are not capable of paying immediately the tuition fees. You could do with asking on financial support possibilities prior to enrolling into the school, in addition to discovering how much lesson materials will cost you.

Distance Learning: Promises, Problems, and Possibilities

Introduction

Distance learning and its relationship to emerging computer technologies have together offered many promises to the field of education.  In practice however, the combination often falls short of what it attempts to accomplish.  Some of the shortcomings are due to problems with the technology; others have more to do with administration, instructional methods, or students.  Despite the problems, many users like technologies such as compressed video and see continued growth in the area. This paper will examine some of the current research and thought on the promises, problems, and the future possibilities in modern distance learning, particularly types that are delivered via electronic means.

History of Distance Learning

Before any discussion of distance learning, we need to look at the way the term has been defined in the past and how it is currently defined in the literature.  The term can be used to describe any of a number of instructional situations.  Although it is thought of as a new term, distance learning has been around for well over 100 years.  One of the earlier forms of distance learning was done through correspondence courses started in Europe.  This stayed the primary means of distance learning until the middle of this century when instructional radio and television became more popular (Imel, 1996).  As technology has changed, so has the definition of distance learning. Videotaped lectures have been a standard in university and professional courses for the last two decades (Moore & Lockee, 1998).  Audiotapes and lessons sent through the mail have been used in correspondence courses to teach subjects such as foreign language for quite some time (Teaster & Blieszner, 1999).  Today, the Internet and compressed video have taken distance learning in new directions, allowing distance learning to occur in real time. Live video instruction is the most popular and fastest growing delivery mode in the United States (Ostendorf, 1997).

Definitions of Distance Learning

With the history of distance learning encompassing so many different learning environments, we need to find a definition that fits in all situations.  There have been many definitions put forward in modern literature.  Greenberg (1998) defines contemporary distance learning as “a planned teaching/learning experience that uses a wide spectrum of technologies to reach learners at a distance and is designed to encourage learner interaction and certification of learning” (pg. 36).  Teaster and Blieszner (1999) say “the term distance learning has been applied to many instructional methods: however, its primary distinction is that the teacher and the learner are separate in space and possibly time” (pg. 741).  Desmond Keegan (1995) gives the most thorough definition.  He says that distance education and training result from the technological separation of teacher and learner which frees the student from the necessity of traveling to “a fixed place, at a fixed time, to meet a fixed person, in order to be trained” (pg. 7).  From these definitions we can see that the student and teacher are separated by space, but not necessarily by time. This would include compressed video, which is delivered in real time. As stated earlier, this type of live video instruction is the fastest growing means of distance learning today.  Because of this, much of the discussion here will be dedicated to the promises and problems of this technology.

The Promises of Distance Learning

Many of the promises of distance learning are financial in nature. Universities hope to save money by delivering education to students that are unable to attend classes because of time or distance.  The theory is that class size increases while the overhead remains the same.  In a 2001 article by Burton Bollag and Martha Ann Overland, they say that developing countries are turning to state run distance education programs to take the place of ever increasing enrollments and a lack of physical building space.  Places such as Beijing, Jakarta, and South American countries such as Brazil and Argentina have all begun to use distance-learning techniques to reach those that would by any other means be unreachable. Bollag and Overland say countries like China are moving from “elite to mass education,” and that “traditional universities cannot meet the demand” (pg. A29).  China uses a radio and television delivery system to serve 1.5 million students, two-thirds of which are in a degree program.

In Australia, Curtain University uses compressed video conferencing to reach remote students in Western Australia, and to enhance classes in Business Studies by connecting with students in Singapore.  Other examples can be found in the UK and Norway where several sites have been linked together (Keegan, 1995).  Of course there is also wide use in the United States, both in the public and private sectors.  It should be obvious by these examples and by the definition of distance learning, that it can meet the promise to deliver classes to a geographically broad and diverse population.  Not only that, but the need seems to be strong for such programs. According to the American Council on Education, the number of students in distance learning doubled from 1995 to 1998 totaling 1.6 million (Devarics, 2001).  Another market forecast says that by the year 2002 there will be 2.2 million students in distance education program, a full 15 per cent of all U.S. college students (Rochester, et.al., 1999, cited in Dibiase 2000).  Many Universities are feeling the pressure to control their costs, improve quality of instruction, focus on customer needs, and respond to the competitive pressures (Horgan, 1998, p.1). Distance learning technologies have the potential to assist in solving these problems. In 1994, Basom and Sherritt surveyed higher education administrators and state politicians to find out what they thought would be the major problems facing American higher education in the next millennium.  The answers they most often received were: “meeting increased demands at a time of decreased resources, increasing or maintaining access, using technology more efficiently, and sharing resources across state lines so that colleges won’t have to be all things to all people” (Pg. 4).  Distance learning seems to address all of these issues.  Administrators hope that distance learning methods will help make higher education more cost-effective (Dibiase, 2000).  This type of answer may be seen as a quick fix for many administrators.  If not approached seriously however, the distance programs can quickly become second rate.

The convenience of time and space is a big promise made by distance learning.  Students do not have to physically be with the instructor in space and, depending on the method used, they do not have to be together in time as well.  This is a great advantage for non-traditional students who cannot attend at regular times.  Satellite campuses such as the ones Arkansas State University have recently opened are drawing out a “hidden market” of adult students in small towns and recent high school graduates who don’t want to go away to a bigger city to get an education.  The satellite campuses could conceivably help the school’s enrollment to grow tenfold (Savoye, 2001).

Problems of Distance Learning

Despite the promises and obvious advantages to distance learning, there are problems that need to be resolved.  These problems include the quality of instruction, hidden costs, misuse of technology, and the attitudes of instructors, students, and administrators.  Each one of these has an effect on the overall quality of distance learning as a product.  In many ways, each of these issues relates to the others.  We will examine each of these issues separately.

Quality of Instruction

The first issue is the quality of instruction that is given through distance learning programs.  Much of the quality of instruction depends on the attitude of the administration and the instructor.  Data collected in a 1999 study by Elliot Inman and Michael Kerwin showed instructors had conflicting attitudes about teaching distance education.  They report that after teaching one course, the majority of instructors were willing to teach another, but that they rated the quality of the course as only equal or lower quality than other classes taught on campus.  Many times it seems that the administration believes the technology itself will improve the quality of the class.  Palloff and Pratt (2000) remind us that “technology does not teach students; effective teachers do”(pg. 4).  They make the point that the issue is not technology itself, but how it is used in the design and delivery of courses.  Too often instructors do not design their lessons to take advantage of the technology presented.  This affects the quality of the instruction. Research suggests that the effectiveness of distance learning is based on preparation, the instructor’s understanding of the needs of the students, and an understanding of the target population (Omoregie, 1997).  Sherritt (1996) found in her survey of higher education administrators that many of the decision makers view distance programs as second rate, a “necessary but deficient form of education” (pg.2).  She writes that this attitude also was found in academic departments that “have no strong mandates to adjust their curriculum and instruction to fit distance learning beyond cursory cooperation” (pg. 2).  There are no rewards for doing so and the effort takes away from research time.  Sherrit also cites a study by Caffarella et al. done in 1992, which found off campus instructors to be “a demoralized bunch, perceiving poor working conditions, isolation, personal and professional deprivation” (pg.3).  This attitude hardly seems conducive to an effective learning environment for the students.  If the administration and instructors are lacking in true commitment, it is bound to have a negative influence on the entire distance learning experience.

Cost Effectiveness

The second issue is the true cost and the cost effectiveness of distance learning programs.  Are they actually cost efficient?  A study by Phelps et al. (1991) found that “the potential cost-effectiveness of using online technologies in distance education is still uncertain” (pg. 303).  The study further showed that the concepts of costs and effectiveness are not as simple as they first appear.  Atkinson (1983, cited in Ng, 2000) notes, “it is possible for a program to be efficient but not cost effective if the outputs which are actually produced do not contribute to the program objectives: that is it may be efficient at doing the wrong things” (pg. 306). Ng also comments on the cost of human capital.  He states, “Human capital and the costs of conversion are expenses that can easily be underestimated” (pg. 306).  Ng notes that the cost of online courses is affected by how they are implemented: as an enhancement or as the primary teaching medium.  If it is implemented as a primary teaching medium, it is considerably more expensive.  The teaching purpose of the different approaches needs to be taken into account.  If this is not factored in by administration, there may be costs that are not apparent at first glance.  Caffarella et al. (1992) found in a study at the University of Northern Colorado that when electronic distance delivery costs were compared with those of instructor travel directly to the site, the least costly alternative was the live instruction with the instructor traveling to the remote site compressing the class into fewer weeks.  This alternative was one-third the cost of any other alternative.  Starting a compressed video distance-learning program is not cheap.  Southern Arkansas University-Magnolia decided to try compressed video as an alternative to other methods. The startup equipment for the unit was approximately ,000.  Establishment of a permanent T-1 telephone line was another ,200 per month (Weber, 1996).  These costs are startup only and do not reflect any of the human capital costs as discussed earlier.  Carr (2001) discusses a report by the California State University System that looked at cost savings in distance learning programs.  The report found that only in really large courses with many sections would cost savings be possible.  Courses in excess of 500 students would benefit from this setup, while it was still more cost effective to teach smaller groups in a traditional setting.  The startup costs, maintenance costs, and personnel costs should also be factored in to arrive at a true cost for a distance-learning program.  The minimum number of staff required for delivery of a compressed video class would be one instructor and two technicians, one at each site.  This means a minimum of three people is needed to deliver the same class as one instructor does in a traditional setting.  The costs associated with training technicians and instructors should not be overlooked.  For effective distance education to take place, the staff delivering the instruction should be well trained.

Misuse of Technology

Besides the cost of the technology, there is the possibility of not utilizing all its potential.  Some of these problems arise from a lack of training, some from the instructor’s attitudes about using the technology, and still others by hardware problems.  It seems to be self evident that instructors need to be trained to use distance learning technology, but too often they are not.  Once again, it appears that administration may feel that the technology itself will improve the course. Advancement in technology does not lead to effective distance education.  The best distance education practices depend on creative, well-informed instructors (Greenberg, 1998).  Bates (1995) suggests that newer technologies are not inherently better than old ones and many of the lessons learned from the application of older technologies will still apply to any newer technology. Again, the instructor should be trained to take advantage of both their experience and being able to adapt that experience to the new environment of distance learning.  The instructors must be trained “not only to use technology, but also to shift the way in which they organize and deliver material” (Palloff & Pratt, 2000, pg. 3).

The Role of the Technicians

One overlooked factor in the success or failure of distance learning programs is the role that the technicians play in distance learning.   Of course they play a large role in the technical delivery, but little is known about the non-technical activities of the technicians that could have an influence on the instructional process.  In a 1995 study, Olenski et al., found that technicians could indirectly influence the learning environment by “orientating participants to the technology, reducing the anxiety of the participants” (including the instructor), “and by advising the instructor on instructional techniques”(pg. 3).  This type of role, if viewed negatively by the instructor, can have a huge impact on the quality of the presentation, yet many times the instructor and the technicians do not meet until the initial class meeting.  Olenski also found that the technicians felt the instructors were given inadequate orientation to the equipment and really could not operate it until they had hands on experience.  The technicians also saw a difference in the instructors who could adapt their styles to the technology, and those who could not.  Those who adapted were, in the opinion of the technicians, superior in conducting the classes.  So we see not only does the instructor need to adapt to the educational environment, they must also adapt to another person in the room that can help or hinder the delivery of the lesson.  Much of the outcome depends on the attitude of the instructor.

Problems with Equipment

Equipment and hardware malfunctions can be a great detriment to the effectiveness of distance learning. When a problem occurs in a class everything comes to a standstill and the learning environment is interrupted.  If there are too many instances, the entire course can be affected.  For instance, if an overhead projector goes out during an instructor’s presentation, an alternate way of delivering that information can easily be found.  However, if a compressed video presentation has problems, the entire class must be stopped until the problem is resolved.  If the instructor goes ahead with the lesson, one site will miss out on that information.   Carter (2001) did a study of students taking courses by compressed video in the Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College program.  One of the questions he asked pertained to the equipment and technology operating correctly.  His results from three groups spread over the different sites showed that only 42% agreed with the statement that the equipment and technology operated correctly.  A program studied by Teaster and Bliesner (1999) found that unanticipated technical problems with the system shortened the class time and discussion that negatively affected the overall quality of the presentation.  In one presentation the connection was lost twice prior to the students arriving and ten times during the actual instructional session.  During this particular session there was never more than a four-minute period before the connection to one of the sites was lost.  This may be an extreme example, but according to the instructor involved in the presentation, the course experience was “better, but similar to past experiences” (pg. 743). At Southern Arkansas University-Magnolia, they discovered that using compressed video as a single medium of delivering distance education was not as effective as was first hoped.  Because of this they developed a different concept of an “electronic classroom” that did not rely on just one mode of delivery (Weber, 1996). Their experience was that compressed video had connection problems and did not work well broadcasting information delivered by lecture.  The failure of the hardware can be a very frustrating thing for all involved in distance learning.  For the instructor, it means they can be well prepared for the class only to have a bad connection or camera failure cause the entire lesson to go bad.  For the technician, the frustration and inability to keep the class running smoothly may affect the instructor’s view of their competency, causing friction.  For the student, an inability to get a flow to the class and feel like progress is being made can hinder the learning process.  Those students used to the traditional face-to-face instruction and who do not have a tolerance for ambiguity will have a difficult time.

Attitudes Towards Distance Learning

Despite problems with hardware that may or may not get worked out with new advances in technology, we must come back to instructors and their attitudes towards teaching in a distance-learning environment as a major potential roadblock to effective distance education.  As in any educational situation, the instructor can set the tone for learning in the educational environment. That instructor must be properly trained and motivated to be effective.  An instructor must have technological skills and confidence to use all of the various electronic devices in order to be truly effective in the electronic classroom.  Instructors must also change the manner in which information is delivered.  While lecture does not work well, multimedia presentations are successful (Weber 1996).  Of course this means more preparation time for the instructor and the motivation must be there.  (Walcott 1994, cited in Carter, 2000) found in a study of adult distance learning that “to effectively bridge the gaps between classroom and distance teaching, faculty need to look at the distance teaching from the students’ point of view” (pg. 249).  The faculty must also be aware of getting instructional materials, handouts, tests, and other class items to both sites simultaneously.  It is important for the instructors to develop a sense of community between the sites, achieve maximum participation, and get the participants to buy in to the process. The idea of learning as a collaborative process is very important when students are separated by distance. According to research by Palloff and Pratt (2000), “collaborative learning processes assists students to achieve deeper levels of knowledge generation through the creation of shared goals, shared exploration, and a shared process of meaning making” (pg. 6).  It is up to the instructor to be aware of this in the distance learning environment and to encourage collaborative learning and a sense of community among the students.

Another important consideration for the instructor is their view regarding the goal of distance education.  There are two main thoughts on this.  Schlosser and Anderson (1994, cited in Imel, 1998) put this thought forward in a review of distance education literature.  They submit that the goal of distance education in the United States is “to offer the distance student an experience as much like that of traditional, face-to-face instruction as possible” (pg. 3).  This would mean that distance learning pedagogy would not differ much from that used in an ordinary classroom.  Bates (1995) has a different idea.  He suggests that instead of using technology to replicate traditional methods, it should be used to improve instruction.  Holmberg (1989) also discusses these two schools of thought and concludes that distance education as a mode of education in its own right has very different consequences (than viewing it as a substitute for face-to-face instruction).  The instructor must decide which attitude they will adopt because it has a profound impact on their approach to instruction.

Instructors also have adaptations they need to make to the technology.  An instructor used to visual cues may find it difficult to adapt to a situation such as compressed video.  The students at the remote site are not always in clear view of the instructor.  West (1994) calls adapting to the lack of visual cues a major adaptation for the instructor.  Part of this can be alleviated by good communication with the technician, but as we have seen earlier, that communication is not always present.  McKnight (2000) contends that proximity and eye contact are important factors in education that are limited in the distance learning environment.  She says that we inherently recognize the connection these provide, but in the distance learning environment they are “both severely and sometimes permanently compromised” (pg. 2).  She asserts that professors are unable to observe the emotions of the students and cannot detect “moments of anxiety,” thereby limiting their ability to respond to student needs. This puts a burden on the instructor and causes the students to respond differently than they might in a traditional classroom setting.  As we saw earlier, creating a community is an important factor for the instructor to have an effective class.  The instructor must do all he can to overcome the limits of the technology and involve the students in an environment of interaction, which can work to create the feeling of a true class (Hiltz & Wellman, 1997).

Instructor Concerns

Instructors have other concerns about distance learning, primarily how it will change their role in education.  Clark (1993) found in a national survey of attitudes of higher education faculty that there was a moderately positive attitude about distance learning in general, but moderately negative attitudes about their own use of it.  Writing about geography educators, Gober (1998) worries that if they rely too much on distance-learning techniques, the discipline would “risk losing our collective soul in the rush to convenience, cost-effectiveness, and accountability” (pg. 130).  Instructors worry about putting their course materials online because once there, the knowledge and course design skill in that material is out of their possession.  This puts the administration in a position to hire less skilled, and cheaper, workers to deliver the technologically prepackaged course (Noble, 1998 cited in Dibiase, 2000).  Instructors are not always convinced that administration is behind distance learning.  The rewards are not always there for the good distance-learning instructor.  “Tenure and promotion usually does not recognize excellent off campus teaching which, in fact, takes valuable time from research agendas” (Sherritt, 1996, pg. 4).  This puts the instructors behind when trying to publish to get their department recognized.  The increased amount of time necessary to adequately prepare for distance learning takes away from the activities they will be evaluated on, such as grant writing and publishing.  Many of the instructors concerns are valid and should be addressed by administration as distance learning becomes more common, as is predicted to happen.

Student Concerns

Finally, there are the students and their concerns with distance learning classes.  Not all students are suited to this type of learning and not all subjects are best taught via this medium.  More mature students are the most likely to find success with distance learning.  The successful student needs to have a number of characteristics such as tolerance for ambiguity, a need for autonomy, and an ability to be flexible (Threkeld & Brzoska, 1994).  Hardy and Boaz (1997) found that “compared to most face-to-face learning environments, distance learning requires students to be more focused, better time managers, and to be able to work independently and with group members” (p.43). Many distance learners are different from traditional undergraduates in that they are already in professions.  They have well defined goals and are more motivated (Dibiase, 2000).  As we saw earlier, distance education students need to feel a part of a community.  Greenburg (1998) describes this as a virtual learning community.

Students in these communities often feel less pressure to perform individually, and more pressure to collaborate and be part of the team (Kantor, 1998 cited in Greenberg, 1998).  Being involved in a collaborative learning process is an important part of forming the foundation of a learning community.  When this is not encouraged, participation is generally low and dialog is absent (Palloff & Pratt, 2000).  Students also need the attention of the instructors.  This may be truer in a distance situation than in a traditional classroom.  In a situation where eye contact and proximity are limited, students cannot be disciplined nor affirmed by eye contact and body language (McKnight, 2000).  Students may also have a difficult time reading the reactions of the remote location class members.  This lack of interaction can cause problems when there is a dissenting opinion that cannot be picked up on with non-verbal cues, and is misperceived as a verbal attack. This type of miscommunication can cause the community problems as the class progresses.  It is fair to say that compressed video can magnify the strengths and weaknesses of the instructor.  Students are prone to pick up on a lack of organization and direction and respond with apathy and absenteeism (West, 1994).

Conclusions

What may we conclude from the promises and problems of distance learning?  Are there possibilities for improvement in the future?  The technology will undoubtedly keep improving and the price will drop, as technology is prone to do once it comes into general use.  Already we see improvement in the delivery systems of compressed video and computer assisted instruction.  Despite student problems with distance learning, studies indicate they are relatively satisfied with what they are receiving.  A study of students at Indiana University of Pennsylvania found 75% were very satisfied with the instruction they received and 90% rating the technology as satisfactory (Fergusin & Wijekumar, 2000).  Another study by Harner et al., (2000) was done on a distance learning accounting course at the University of Connecticut.  They found that 57.5% would take another such course.  Two other findings were generally favorable and included comments on how the course could be improved.  The first suggested the instructors needed to be comfortable with the medium, and that the students needed to have more guidance on how to fully take advantage of the presentation (Teaster & Blieszner, 1999).  The second showed that students were highly satisfied with the instructors and the course, but that direct interaction with the instructor played no role in the students’ satisfaction (Inman & Kerwin, 1999).

It would seem one element that needs immediate improvement is with instructors.  The literature indicates a need for instructors to adapt their teaching methods to the distance learning format.  Keegan (1995) shows many excellent ways that instructors can better prepare for the classroom including multimedia use, speaking voice, and even font size considerations.  Instructors also need to realize that the technician is an integral part of the experience of distance learning and treat them as such.  Many times opinions and communication between the technician and the instructor are not shared either because the technician’s role is unclear, or there is a shared perception of a difference in status between the two (Olenski et al., 1995).  Instructors must be motivated to prepare adequately for classes.  Part of the responsibility for motivation must lie with the administration and their support of the program.  “Because teaching a distance learning class involves a new role for instructors, administrators must provide them with the time, the tools, and the training to meet these new responsibilities” (Inman & Kerwin, 1999, p.586).  Administration needs to train and educate instructors on this role and how to meet the challenges.  Sherritt (1996) found in her survey of higher education administrators that “for whatever reasons, higher education administrators and politicians understand the need for technology.  But, lacking the heart for distance education, they cannot bring themselves to support it with adequate personnel, simple supplies, and a reasonable operating budget” (pg. 4).  This sort of attitude from administration can do nothing but trickle down into the instructors and the students.  Administrators need to carefully weigh their goals and objectives when taking on a distance education program.

Despite the need for improvement, the future of distance learning seems bright.  Increasing numbers of students enrolling in distance learning classes underscore the need for “comprehensive and thoughtful evolution of distance education if it is to become the educational model of the future” (Harnar, et al., 2000, pg. 37).  Despite the cost, coordination, and training that must be put into a program, it has “great potential to deliver and receive educational programs to and from remote sites” (Weber, 1996, pg. 219).  Perhaps Keegan (1995) puts it best when he says “the challenge is to design cost-effective and educationally-effective systems for use in the new millennium of the new technologies that permit for the first time in history (electronic) teaching of students face-to-face at a distance

 

Indira Gandhi National Open University, the National Resource Centre for Open and Distance Learning with international recognition and presence, shall provide seamless access to sustainable and learner-centric quality education, skill up gradation and training to all by using innovative technologies and methodologies and ensuring convergence of existing systems for massive human resource required for promoting integrated national development and global understanding.

 

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